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These communication techniques function differently from VALS. They fostered a sense of trust based on dialogue, for example, rather than implying the top-down authority created by the uni-valency of VALS. A number of users expressed the view that trying to get “facts out of scientists” was difficult, but by “building trust ahead of time”, it was possible to trust each other and understand each other’s limitations, despite institutionally “different cultures” (CVO scientist 5). This was also the conclusion of Peterson ( 1988, p. 1467) who pointed out after interviewing journalists and scientists following the 1980 Mt. St. Helen eruptions that journalists found that “scientists are too long-winded; they talk all around the subject and never get to the point; they do not understand that we need to use straightforward, simple statements; we have to convert the complicated discourses to words that people can read” (after Peterson 1988, p. 4167). USGS (2017) Volcano Notifications Deliver Situational Information. Retrieved from: https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vhp/notifications.html. Accessed 4 Apr 2018

The] complicated reduction of all of these factors (risk, hazard, activity) and boiling that down to a simple number [means] inevitably if you do that, something is going to be lost. You can’t just project a ten-dimensional problem down to one dimension and expect it to retain all its complexity (AVO scientist 4). Fujimura JH (1987) Constructing ‘do-able’ problems in cancer research: articulating alignment. Soc Stud Sci 17(2):257–293 Fearnley CJ (2013) Assigning a volcano alert level: negotiating uncertainty, risk, and complexity in decision-making processes. Environ Plan A 45:1891–1911 In summary, VALS differ greatly between countries, with some including only descriptions of the level of physical phenomena (e.g. differing criteria of volcanic unrest and size of eruption), whilst others include hazards, potential impacts and risk mitigation actions (including evacuations). Some include forecasting, whilst others do not. Designing new VALS and evaluating or revising existing systems requires an understanding of these options. These processes benefit from being able to draw upon the experiences of others in similar situations, and the related theory of risk (and crisis) communication. With increasing levels of technology and communications methods (such as social networking), it is imperative that VALS used by volcano observatories around the world retain their credibility and trust, and work to serve legal, political and local community requirements. This requires further investigation in understanding how uncertainties are conveyed and represented within the VALS and how these are perceived by key decision makers, as discussed by Fearnley ( 2013) and Fearnley et al. ( 2017). It is also important to note that the original intent of VALS may vary in different countries and that intent is very different from the reality of the task, resulting in VALS evolving in different ways over the years, in part to deal with changing technologies, growing and more complex societies and differing legal and institutional remits and protocols.

Creech H, Willard T (2001) Strategic intentions: managing knowledge networks for sustainable development. IISD, Winnipeg David PA, Greenstein S (1990) The economics of compatibility standards: an introduction to recent research. Econ Innov New Technol 1:3–41

GNS (2010) Volcano alert levels explained. http://www.gns.cri.nz/what/earthact/volcanoes/alertl_1.html. Accessed 05/01/2010s 2010 UN. Office of the Disaster Relief Co-ordinator (UNDRO) (1985) Volcanic emergency management. New York

Jasanoff S (2011a) Designs on nature: science and democracy in Europe and the United States. Princeton University Press

It has been well established that VALS are designed to provide a ‘bridge’ between the scientific data on risk gathered through the monitoring process and the mitigation decisions and actions involved in the practical management of and response to the relevant hazards (Fearnley 2011; Gardner and Guffanti 2006). There has been very little research to date, however, concerned with the use of VALS to facilitate the communication of the scientific assessment of risk to those required to make practical management and response decisions. Recent exceptions have focused on the issues that arise around the distribution of tasks and decision-making responsibilities between the volcano scientists responsible for deciding alert levels, and the decision-makers who rely on the alert levels when making decisions during volcanic crises that have significant social consequences (e.g. Andreastuti et al. 2017; Hill et al. 2017; Newhall and Solidum 2017; Potter et al. 2017). Fearnley ( 2013) established that in practice, the high levels of both scientific uncertainty and risk so characteristic of volcanic activity have required that scientists consult locally and take social and political factors into account when deciding alert levels. Fearnley concludes that more transparently deliberative approaches that bring scientists and decision-makers together to agree on alert levels would have the potential to legitimise a greater level of coproduction of knowledge, and increase shared understanding of the uncertainties and risks involved on all sides. More recently, Papale ( 2017) appears to take issue with this suggestion. Citing the “principle of separation of roles”, he proposes instead that “scientists should base their evaluations exclusively on scientific knowledge, providing decision-makers with clear, unambiguous information that they can use to fulfil their societal and political mandates” (Papale 2017, p. 4). He maintains that this information should consist of probabilistic forecasts, which he finds to be “in a form most suited to provide decision-makers with the realistic picture for their subsequent decisions” (Papale 2017, p. 4). Papale concludes that VALS should be replaced by a “rational approach, in which varied expertise is harnessed in a coordinated effort, uncertainties are fully recognised and quantified, communications are unambiguous, and responsibilities reflect the social role and societal mandate of all groups involved” (Papale 2017, p. 4). Madden J, Murray TL, Carle WJ, Cirillo MA, Furgione LK, Trimpert MT, and Hartig L (2008) Alaska interagency operating plan for volcanic ash episodes, p 52Lee E, Su Jung C, Lee MK (2014) The potential role of boundary organizations in the climate regime. Environ Sci Pol 36:24–36 We are a family-run business, trading since 1983 (online since 2000), serving over half a million customers last year alone. As a five-time winner of the prestigious award “Best UK Online Retailer”, we are passionate about creating a shopping experience that is fun, easy and hassle-free.

Fearnley CJ (2011) Standardising the USGS volcano alert level system: acting in the context of risk, uncertainty and complexity (Doctoral dissertation, UCL (University College London)) Bretton RJ, Gottsmann J, Aspinall WP, Christie R (2015) Implications of legal scrutiny processes (including the L’Aquila trial and other recent court cases) for future volcanic risk governance. J Appl Volcanol 4:18The research that Cash et al. ( 2003) built on had already established that coordinated efforts of the kind invoked by Papale ( 2017) necessarily occur at the hybrid, dynamic interface between scientific and other communities, where the strategic demarcation of scientific and other tasks involves inevitable crossover (Guston 2001; Jasanoff 2011a, b; Parker and Crona 2012; Drimie and Quinlan 2011). In this article, we start from this understanding; it is not possible to restrict scientists to science when they are communicating scientific information across the boundary that divides science and non-science knowledge domains, and neither is it best practice.